The Indian subcontinent was one of the largest and most populous territories ever colonized by the British Empire and it was among the first few countries to break free from Western rule. Not only did they have an influence on our rich Indian culture but had a deep-rooted impact on the traditional Indian medicine system.
Introduction
Earlier during the 18th century there was a social interaction between the Western and the indigenous system of medicine. Hoever the discovery of the human circulatory system by the English physician, William Harvey, for the first time led to a situation where the British started to look down upon traditional Indian medicine. This scientific breakthrough influenced the medical system, institutions, and practitioners in India. In fact, many historians argue that the colonial regime used Western medicine as a tool to expand and authorize its rule in India. So let us delve into and have a closer loo k at what two centuries of British rule in India did to the Unani and Ayurveda.
India had physicians of diverse backgrounds. They were the Vaidyas and Hakims who practiced Ayurveda and Unani medicine respectively. The Ayurveda system emerged in India around 600 BC while the Unani Tibb was introduced in India during the 12th century with the establishment of Muslim power in India. Both vaidyas and hakims lived in harmony with each other. They exchanged ideas and helped one another in practicing their respective skills.
Colonial India’s Medical Landscape
During the early phase, around the mid-18th century, the practice of Western medicine, known as ‘doctor’ in India, gained momentum in colonial India. The doctor’s attire, appearance and the way they communicated was very much different from the traditional practitioners. They were supported by the British and some Indians educated in Western countries. During this era the Vaidyas and Hakims suffered significantly due to their loss of prestige against Western medicine’s claims of being superior. This was partly due to the ongoing discoveries, innovations and research in human anatomy, physiology, pathology which was lacking in traditional medicine back then as they mainly relied on symptomatic treatment.
Transition to Western Influence
Initially, the European doctors respected the Indian system of medicine and were willing to learn their practices of treating tropical illnesses. Later the devising of microscope which was one of the major innovations as it aided Western scientists in studying disease-causing pathogens. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek used a single-lens microscope to make the first observation of Bacteria and protozoa. Furthermore, the invention of the stethoscope by an Irish physician, Arthur Leared in 1851, and in 1852 George Philip Cammann perfected the design of the stethoscope was a massive advancement in the field of medicine. Therefore they claimed themselves to have a more ‘superior’ system of medicine due to the presence of scientific evidence rather than wisdom.
However some indigenous practitioners claimed themselves to be perfectionists and defended and promoted their system while some practitioners adopted the ideas of Western medicine. Despite the rising popularity of Western medicine, some traditional practitioners continued to be popular among the folk in their villages.
There have been developments of many different medical education, services and institutions during this period in India. During the later 18th century when the British East India Company was established in Bengal, many British surgeons were recruited. These surgeons had to pass competitive exams both in Britain and in India. Bengal Medical Services was instituted for formalizing the employment of British surgeons in Bengal.
Medical Landscape in 18th Century India
Majority of the surgeons worked for the military services owing to the warfare during the 18th century. The Indian soldiers who were recruited by the British East India Company were the first Indians to receive the medical treatment by the British doctors. Among them few of the higher cast soldiers denied the western medication. So the company later hired Indian practitioners for dispensing medicines. Soon the Company began hiring Indians as medical assistants. Therefore after 1760 “Subordinate Medical Services” (SMS) was formulated in each presidency for organising both the western and Indian medical practitioners to practice their skills in a state of harmony with one another.
Soon the Indian educationist began translating the classical Ayurvedic and Unani texts. It astonished the Europeans with the accomplishments that the Indian medicine had achieved during the early times. This made them critical of the present day Indian medicine. Sir William Jones in 1789 founded a journal ‘Journal of Asiatic Research’. He supported the research of the Indian medicine and the medicinal plants.
In 1792 the first hospital was set up in Calcutta that was opened up for the general Indian public. The people reported for the treatment of critical illnesses. Gradually the wealthy and the noble Indian men requested to get treated by the doctor as they refused to go the traditional practitioners.
The hakims and Vaidyas continued to remain popular among the majority of the Indian masses. The popular hakims were Sharif’s in Delhi and Aziz’s in Lucknow. They had their own clinics with lucrative practices. There were no separate centers for their training. They trained their family members with the knowledge and skills gained during their practice.
Medical Education in 19th Century Calcutta
In the years 1822 and 1824, the Native Medical Institute (NMI) and Sanskrit College were set up in Calcutta to teach both the Western and Indian systems of medicine in Urdu and Sanskrit respectively.
The period after 1820 witnessed rapid medical advancements in the field of obstetrics, amputation surgery, and management of fracture especially after the introduction of chloroform in India in 1849. This led to the distancing of the Western and Indian systems of medicine.
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Modern instruments such as thermometers, stethoscopes, microscopes, and vaccines led to the improvement in the diagnosis and prevention of the disease. These advancements shook the foundation of Orientalism. The Europeans no longer saw benefits in rediscovering the traditional medicine as they no longer considered it rational.
Another criticism of the Indian medical system was its lack of hands-on clinical training. This was in contrast to Western medicine which emphasized practical learning in hospitals and clinics.
Transition to Western Dominance
Later the British East India Company started training its personnel in western medicine. And it completely stopped its support of the Indian system of medicine.
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The colleges that were established in 1822 and 1824 (as mentioned previously) were abolished. In 1835 Calcutta Medical College was established that delivered only the western system of medicine in English. Madras, Bombay, and Lahore also saw the inauguration of medical colleges.
The Royal College of Surgery recognised these colleges. It included subjects like human anatomy, and human dissection among many others. The course length was increased to five years. 1897 saw the formation of the Indian Medical Services (IMS).
The period from 1860 to 1880 witnessed the formulation of medical schools. These provided training to the paramedical staffs who were later known as ‘licentiates’.
Many provincial institutions adopted the practice of delivering Western medicine in local languages. Therefore, Western medical education was at the reach of Indians.
This gave them the recognized status of being a doctor and a chance of being into the Company’s medical service. The Western-educated Indians supported Western medicine and considered it as a superior form of knowledge.
Western medicine became widely popular among Indian females. Anandibai Gopal Joshi was the first woman from the erstwhile Bombay presidency of India to graduate with a degree in Western medicine in the United States in March 1886. Rupabai Furdoonji blazed a trail as the first female anesthetist in the world.
Conclusion:
The British tried to prove their supremacy in every field including medicine to justify their rule over the Indian subcontinent. I believe that Western medicine helped in the establishment of colonial power and dominion in India.
